Emotion regulation is the set of processes aimed at influencing which emotions a person has, when they are experienced, and how they are experienced and expressed.
What is emotion regulation?
Gross (1998) defined emotion regulation as the processes by which individuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express them. Emotion regulation does not mean eliminating emotions; it covers the automatic or conscious processes that influence the intensity, duration and expression of emotions. Attachment theory also addresses the effect of early relationships on emotion regulation; for details, see What Is Attachment Theory?.
Which strategies are included in Gross’s process model?
According to Gross’s model, emotion regulation strategies come into play at different stages of the process through which an emotion arises; the model holds that regulation can occur at five points (Gross, 1998):
- Situation selection: Approaching or avoiding situations expected to evoke particular emotions
- Situation modification: Adjusting a situation so as to change its emotional impact
- Attentional deployment: Directing attention away from, or concentrating on, elements that evoke emotion
- Cognitive change (reappraisal): Changing the emotional impact of a situation by interpreting its meaning differently
- Response modulation: Influencing the expression of an emotion or bodily and behavioral responses (for example, suppressing expression)
What is the difference between reappraisal and suppression?
Gross (2002) notes that the two strategies differ in timing within the emotion process: reappraisal (interpreting the situation differently) comes into play early, whereas suppression (inhibiting emotional expression) comes into play later. According to this review, reappraisal reduces both the experience and the expression of emotion and does not affect memory; suppression has been reported to reduce expression but not the experience of emotion, to impair memory and to increase physiological responding.
In five studies, Gross and John (2003) found that people who habitually use reappraisal more often experience and express more positive and less negative emotion, whereas people who often suppress expression experience and express less positive emotion and experience more negative emotion. Reappraisal was related to better interpersonal functioning and well-being, and suppression to poorer functioning and well-being.
These findings are correlational, and no strategy should be regarded as “always good” or “always bad” by itself. In a meta-analysis of 114 studies, the association with psychopathology symptoms was small to medium for reappraisal and acceptance, medium to large for avoidance and suppression, and large for rumination; many relationships also differed depending on whether samples were clinical or not (Aldao et al., 2010).
How can emotion regulation difficulties arise?
Gratz and Roemer (2004) addressed emotion regulation difficulties in six dimensions in the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale:
- Lack of awareness of emotions
- Difficulty understanding emotions
- Non-acceptance of emotional responses
- Difficulty engaging in goal-directed behavior when experiencing negative emotions
- Difficulty with impulse control
- Limited access to effective emotion regulation strategies
According to the extended process model of Sheppes and colleagues (2015), difficulties can arise at one of four points: noticing the need to regulate, selecting a strategy, implementing it and monitoring it; emotional problems, moreover, do not always stem from regulation difficulties. These difficulties are not a diagnosis on their own; they can be seen together with different problems such as anxiety, stress and depressive symptoms. For broader information on this topic, see Anxiety, Stress and Emotion Regulation Difficulties and How They Are Addressed in Psychotherapy.
What are common misconceptions about emotion regulation, and what are its limits?
- “Emotion regulation means suppressing or controlling emotions.” No. Emotion regulation does not mean eliminating emotions; suppression is only one of the strategies and comes into play late in the process (Gross, 2002).
- “Reappraisal is always the better strategy.” No. Habitual reappraisal has been linked with more positive emotion and well-being in daily life (Gross and John, 2003), but its association with psychopathology symptoms was small to medium, and the findings are correlational (Aldao et al., 2010).
- “Emotion regulation difficulty is a diagnosis and the cause of every emotional problem.” No. These difficulties are not a diagnosis on their own, and emotional problems do not always stem from regulation difficulties (Sheppes et al., 2015).
How is emotion regulation addressed in psychotherapy?
Different psychotherapy approaches address emotion regulation in different ways. In a cognitive behavioral therapy approach, the links between thoughts, feelings and behavior are examined, and reappraisal and behavioral strategies can be worked on. In a psychodynamic approach, the meaning of emotions within the person’s relationship patterns and past experiences can be explored. For more information, see What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy? and What Is Psychodynamic Psychotherapy?.
Expert note
In everyday language, emotion regulation is often understood as “keeping emotions under control.” The concept, however, concerns not eliminating emotion but the form of the relationship with emotion and the effect of emotion on behavior.
From a perspective that draws on cognitive behavioral and psychodynamic psychotherapy theories, the ways of regulating emotions can be considered together within current cycles of thoughts and behaviors and within relationship patterns and life story. The information in this article does not replace an individual assessment.
Clinical Psychologist Özgün Emre Yaylacı
Frequently asked questions
Is emotion regulation about controlling emotions?
No. Emotion regulation is not about eliminating emotions but about regulating the relationship with emotions and the effect of emotions on behavior.
Is suppressing emotions always harmful?
The effects of strategies vary across studies, and no strategy should be regarded as “always good” or “always bad” by itself. However, research reports that frequently suppressing expression as a habit can be associated with less positive emotion and poorer interpersonal functioning (Gross and John, 2003).
Is reappraisal always better?
Habitual reappraisal has been associated with more positive emotion and well-being (Gross and John, 2003), but in a meta-analysis its association with psychopathology symptoms remained small to medium (Aldao et al., 2010). The findings are correlational.
Is emotion regulation difficulty a diagnosis?
No. Emotion regulation difficulties are not a diagnosis on their own, and emotional problems do not always stem from them. Where a difficulty exists, it may arise at one of the points of noticing the need, selecting a strategy, implementing it or monitoring it (Sheppes et al., 2015).
Can emotion regulation skills be addressed in psychotherapy?
Yes, emotion regulation skills can be addressed in psychotherapy. The suitability of an approach is determined according to the person’s needs, the reason for seeking support and a clinical assessment.
Sources
This article was prepared for general information; the following sources were consulted in preparing it (in English):
- Gross (1998): The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299
- Gross (2002): Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291
- Gross and John (2003): Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362
- Aldao et al. (2010): Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(2), 217–237
- Sheppes et al. (2015): Emotion regulation and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 11, 379–405
- Gratz and Roemer (2004): Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54
This article was prepared by Clinical Psychologist Özgün Emre Yaylacı. Last updated: October 23, 2026. The content is for general information only and does not constitute diagnosis, treatment or personal guidance.
